Theories, Theories, and More Theories
Beyond the broad, unending definition of play, psychologists have developed many theoretical perspectives about the concept of play. By understanding the background behind these theoretical perspectives, we can more accurately measure the benefits of play in children's learning.
Piaget
Psychologist Jean Piaget proposed that play was based upon three stages.These three stages are still used today as a framework for research:
Practice Play: Sensori-motor and exploratory play based on physical activities. This lasts from age six months to approximately two years. (Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Symbolic Play: Pretend, fantasy, and socio-dramatic play, involving the use of mental representations. When play becomes representational, it is regarded as intellectual activity. This state lasts from age two to six years.(Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Games with Rules: From age six or seven up, children now play different games that have structured rules and instructions.(Wood & Attfield, 1996)Piaget also proposed that there are three processes important in learning-assimilation, accommodation, and equalibration. (Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Assimilation: child's ability to change the environment to suit the imagination.
Accommodation: the child's ability to adapt to the environment
.Equalibration: a balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Practice Play: Sensori-motor and exploratory play based on physical activities. This lasts from age six months to approximately two years. (Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Symbolic Play: Pretend, fantasy, and socio-dramatic play, involving the use of mental representations. When play becomes representational, it is regarded as intellectual activity. This state lasts from age two to six years.(Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Games with Rules: From age six or seven up, children now play different games that have structured rules and instructions.(Wood & Attfield, 1996)Piaget also proposed that there are three processes important in learning-assimilation, accommodation, and equalibration. (Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Assimilation: child's ability to change the environment to suit the imagination.
Accommodation: the child's ability to adapt to the environment
.Equalibration: a balance between assimilation and accommodation.
Smilansky
Psychologist Sara Smilansky proposed that you could categorize play into two types of play, socio-dramatic play and dramatic play, based on the following six elements:
These elements are used as a form of assessment for evaluation purposes. (Wood & Attfield, 1996)
- role play by imitation
- make believe with objects
- make believe with actions and situations
- persistence in the role play
- interaction
- verbal communication
These elements are used as a form of assessment for evaluation purposes. (Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Shefatya
Psychologist Leah Shefatya and Sara Smilansky worked together to propose that there are six developmental elements associated with "fantasy" play.
(Hendy & Toon, 2001)
- Imitative role play: children assume a make believe role and use imitative actions and verbalization.
- Make believe with regards to toys: materials and toys are moved and used as characters.
- Verbal make-believe with regard to actions and situations:use of narration as substitute for actions and situations
- Persistence in role play: a period of at least 10 minutes is spent in developing role play
- Interaction: at least two children play together within the context of the story
- Verbal Communication: there is dialog related to the play
Slade
Psychologist Peter Slade proposed that child development can be categorized by age and the skills they master during that time period.(Hendy & Toon, 2001)
O-5 Years: This is the elementary testing stage.Children experiment with with dance and rhythm. It is also the beginning of social awareness and sharing and a growing understanding understanding of mood and climax. Children begin to grow with qualities of absorption,quietness and physical stillness.
5-7 Years: Children develop a growing understanding that movement is a language and that speech by movement and art forms are a way of communication. Dramatic play proper and rhythm are established and well as the concept of seriousness.
O-5 Years: This is the elementary testing stage.Children experiment with with dance and rhythm. It is also the beginning of social awareness and sharing and a growing understanding understanding of mood and climax. Children begin to grow with qualities of absorption,quietness and physical stillness.
5-7 Years: Children develop a growing understanding that movement is a language and that speech by movement and art forms are a way of communication. Dramatic play proper and rhythm are established and well as the concept of seriousness.
Vygotsky
Lev Vygotsky is best known for his theory of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky described the ZPD as the common ground between where a child is, and where he or she might usefully go next. By identifying a child's ZPD, Vygotsky said that an adult could lead a child on ahead of his/her development. Using this theory Vygotsky proposed unity between teaching and learning.(Wood & Attfield, 1996)
Tharp and Gallimore
Psychologists Roland Tharp and Robert Gallimore took Vygotsky's theory of the ZPD and the idea of the unity between teaching and learning and developed the concept of assisted performance. (Wood & Attfield, 1996) Assisted performance is composed of four stages:
Stage 1-Performance is assisted by more capable others : Children rely on adults or more capable peers for regulation and may have only limited understanding or the situation, task or goal to be achieved.
Stage 2- Self-assisted performance: The child's performance is not yet fully developed but they have internalized some of the strategies which are essential to self-directed and self-regulated action.
Stage 3- Performance is developed, automized and "fossilized": The child has internalized the rules, processes, skills, and concepts necessary to independent performance.
Stage 4- De-automization of performance leads to recursion back through the ZPD: Learning spiral to indicate how learners achieve qualitative and quantitative changes in their cognitive competence.
Stage 1-Performance is assisted by more capable others : Children rely on adults or more capable peers for regulation and may have only limited understanding or the situation, task or goal to be achieved.
Stage 2- Self-assisted performance: The child's performance is not yet fully developed but they have internalized some of the strategies which are essential to self-directed and self-regulated action.
Stage 3- Performance is developed, automized and "fossilized": The child has internalized the rules, processes, skills, and concepts necessary to independent performance.
Stage 4- De-automization of performance leads to recursion back through the ZPD: Learning spiral to indicate how learners achieve qualitative and quantitative changes in their cognitive competence.
Gardner
Psychologist Howard Gardner developed the concept of multiple intelligences. Gardner proposed that children learn in eight different forms. By discovering the ways that children learn best, Gardner proposed that we could make accessibility to learning much easier for children.(Wood & Attfield, 1996) The eight forms of learning that Gardner proposes are as following:
Linguistic: dealing with language and words
Logical/mathematical: abstraction and numbers
Musical/auditory: rhythm and sound
Visual/spatial: patterning and imagery, knowing the environment
Kinesthetic: physical skills, reflexes and timing
Interpersonal: sensitivity to other's emotions and needs
Intrapersonal: self-knowledge and inner-focusing
Naturalistic: having to do with nature